Progressive Era reformers, frustrated with legislatures they saw as controlled by railroads and political machines, adopted the initiative, referendum, and recall in the early 1900s, beginning with South Dakota in 1898 and Oregon in 1902. Most states with these tools are in the West. Today voters decide more than 100 statewide measures in a typical even-year election, and thousands more at the local level.
This guide explains how each tool works, where it is used, and the arguments for and against direct democracy.
A citizen initiative lets voters propose a statute or constitutional amendment by gathering signatures, and the measure then goes to the ballot, either directly or after the legislature considers it. A legislative referral is a measure the legislature places on the ballot, including the constitutional amendments that every state but Delaware must send to voters. A popular or veto referendum lets voters petition to overturn a newly passed law. A recall lets voters remove an elected official through a special election.
Recall elections are rare at the state level but common locally, especially for school board members and city officials. Only two governors have been recalled: North Dakota's in 1921 and California's in 2003, when voters replaced the governor in the same election. A 2021 effort to recall California's governor failed. Some states require specific grounds such as misconduct, while others allow recalls for any reason.
Supporters say direct democracy lets voters act when legislatures will not, checks special interests, and increases participation. Critics say complex policies are poorly suited to yes-or-no votes, that well-funded interests dominate signature gathering and advertising, that measures can lock budgets into place, and that majorities can vote away minority rights. In recent years several legislatures have raised signature requirements, required supermajorities for approval, or narrowed which topics initiatives can address, prompting countermeasures by initiative supporters and court challenges.
California's Proposition 13 in 1978 capped property taxes and sparked a national tax revolt. Ballot measures legalized marijuana in many states beginning with Colorado and Washington in 2012, raised minimum wages, expanded Medicaid, created independent redistricting commissions, and adopted ranked-choice voting. After the Supreme Court's 2022 Dobbs decision, voters in a series of states approved abortion rights measures, while some were defeated or fell short of supermajority requirements. In 2025 California voters approved a redistricting measure, Proposition 50.
Supporters must gather valid signatures, often a percentage of votes cast in the last governor's race, within a set period. Some states require signatures from many counties or districts, and most limit measures to a single subject. Many campaigns hire paid signature gatherers, and campaigns can cost tens of millions of dollars. Secretaries of state and courts review signatures and ballot language, and disputes over wording and validity are common.
About two dozen states allow statewide citizen initiatives or popular referendums, and 18 allow initiatives to amend the constitution. They are concentrated in the West and Midwest, including California, Oregon, Washington, Arizona, Colorado, Michigan, Ohio, and Florida. About 19 states allow recall of state officials, and many more allow recalls of local officials. Many cities and counties also allow local initiatives. The federal Constitution has no comparable process, making the United States one of the few democracies never to hold a national referendum.
See how state government works in how state government works, learn about elections in who runs elections in America, or see how voters reshaped districts in redistricting and gerrymandering explained.