Lobbying and Interest Groups

The First Amendment protects the right of the people to petition the government for a redress of grievances, and Americans have organized to press their interests since the founding. James Madison warned in Federalist No. 10 about factions but argued that a large republic would keep any one from dominating. Interest groups today include business and trade associations, labor unions, professional organizations, advocacy groups on issues from guns to the environment, state and local governments, universities, and foreign governments. Lobbyists provide information, draft legislation, testify, mobilize members, and build relationships with officials.

The Lobbying Disclosure Act of 1995 requires lobbyists who meet certain thresholds to register with Congress and report their clients, issues, and spending each quarter, and the Honest Leadership and Open Government Act of 2007, passed after the Jack Abramoff scandal, tightened gift rules and required disclosure of lobbyists' campaign fundraising. The Foreign Agents Registration Act of 1938 separately covers people working for foreign governments and parties. Reported federal lobbying spending has exceeded $4 billion a year in recent years, with more activity, called shadow lobbying, going unreported.

Political scientists have long debated what interest groups mean for democracy. Pluralists such as Robert Dahl saw competition among many groups as a healthy way to represent diverse interests, while economist Mancur Olson argued in 1965 that small, concentrated interests organize more easily than large, diffuse ones such as consumers or taxpayers. Supporters say lobbying gives citizens and organizations a voice and supplies expertise lawmakers lack. Critics say well-funded interests gain unequal access and influence.