Political Parties

The Constitution does not mention political parties, and many founders distrusted them, with George Washington warning in his 1796 Farewell Address against the spirit of party. Yet parties formed almost immediately, as Federalists led by Alexander Hamilton clashed with Democratic-Republicans led by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison in the 1790s. The Democratic Party traces its origins to Andrew Jackson's supporters in the 1820s, and the Republican Party was founded in 1854 by opponents of the expansion of slavery. They have been the two major parties since the 1850s.

Parties operate at every level. The Democratic National Committee, founded in 1848, and the Republican National Committee, founded in 1856, organize conventions, raise money, and set nominating rules, while state and county parties run local operations. In Congress, each party's members form a caucus or conference that chooses leaders, assigns committee seats, and sets strategy, and the majority party controls the agenda and committee chairs. Parties are also governed by state laws on ballot access, primaries, and party registration, and the Supreme Court has recognized their rights of association under the First Amendment.

Parties have grown more ideologically distinct and evenly matched since the 1970s, as conservative Southern Democrats and liberal Northeastern Republicans largely disappeared, and party loyalty in voting has reached modern highs. At the same time, the share of Americans who identify as independents has grown to more than 40 percent in some polls, even though most lean toward one party. Supporters say strong parties give voters clear choices and make government accountable, while critics say polarized parties fuel gridlock and that party organizations have lost influence to candidates, donors, and media figures.