The Spoils System and Merit Reform

Andrew Jackson, who took office in 1829, defended rotation in office, arguing that government duties were simple enough for any capable citizen and that long tenure bred corruption. In 1832 Senator William Marcy of New York declared that to the victors belong the spoils, giving the practice its name. For half a century, new administrations replaced postmasters, customs collectors, and clerks with party workers, who were often expected to contribute part of their salaries to the party. Presidents spent much of their time dealing with office seekers.

The assassination of President James Garfield by Charles Guiteau, a disappointed office seeker, in 1881 gave momentum to reformers. The Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act, signed by Chester Arthur on January 16, 1883, required that certain federal jobs be filled through competitive examinations, barred firing or demoting covered employees for political reasons, and created the Civil Service Commission. It initially covered about 10 percent of federal jobs, but Presidents steadily extended it, and by the mid-twentieth century the large majority of federal civilian employees were in the merit system. The Hatch Act of 1939 limited political activity by federal workers.

The Civil Service Reform Act of 1978 replaced the commission with the Office of Personnel Management and the Merit Systems Protection Board. Today about 4,000 positions are filled by political appointment, while the rest of the workforce is hired and protected under merit rules. Debate revived in 2020 with Schedule F, which would make many policy-related career positions easier to fire, revoked in 2021 and reinstated in 2025 as Schedule Policy/Career. Supporters say it restores presidential control over the bureaucracy, while critics say it threatens a return to the spoils system.