Circuit Judges

Under the Judiciary Act of 1789, Supreme Court Justices rode circuit to hear appeals alongside district judges, an arduous system that lasted for a century. The Evarts Act of March 3, 1891, created the circuit courts of appeals with their own judges, and the courts were renamed the U.S. Courts of Appeals in 1948. Today Congress authorizes 179 circuit judgeships on the 12 regional circuits and the Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit, ranging from six judges on the First Circuit to 29 on the Ninth.

Circuit judges are nominated by the President, confirmed by the Senate, and hold office during good behavior, meaning for life unless impeached and removed. They usually sit in panels of three to review decisions of district courts and many federal agencies, and on important questions the full court may rehear a case en banc. Because the Supreme Court hears fewer than 70 cases a year, circuit decisions are effectively final in nearly all federal appeals. Each circuit's judges also help govern the courts in their region through a judicial council, and many clerk for or are later considered for the Supreme Court.

The importance of circuit seats has made confirmations a partisan priority, and since 2017 the Senate has stopped requiring approval from home-state senators, known as blue slips, for circuit nominees. Judges who reach a combination of age and service may take senior status, opening a seat for a new appointment while continuing to hear cases. In 2025 circuit judges heard many appeals of orders blocking administration policies, and threats against federal judges rose sharply. Supporters of life tenure say it protects judicial independence from political pressure, while critics argue that term limits would reduce the stakes of each confirmation.